Military

Philip Morgan explains why Italians have tended to gloss over the period 1940-43, when Mussolini fought against the Allies, preferring to remember the years of German occupation 1943-45.

Jörg Friedrich’s horrifying account of the Allied bombing raids caused a stir on its first publication in Germany. Now it has been translated into English, and York Membery has canvassed some leading British historians for their views.

Tony Rothman recalls one of the turning points of early modern history, when a heroic defence prevented the rampant Ottoman forces from gaining a strategic foothold in the central Mediterranean.

Mike Wells argues that Russian decisions in July 1870 were of major significance for the history of Europe.

Gervase Phillips points out the limitations in a common interpretation.

Richard Cavendish marks the anniversary of a great fortress being sacked, on August 15th, 1209.

Martin Evans looks at the events of 1956 and the French war on terror, both at home and elsewhere, and how this was a turning point for French fortunes in the Algerian War of Independence.

As  the 150th anniversary of the Victoria Cross is celebrated, Richard Vinen looks beyond the individual acts of heroism that have merited the honour, to the wider social, cultural and historical significance of  the medal.

James Exelby unearths the activities of a forgotten British spy whose documents and memoir provide a fascinating insight into the circumstances surrounding the British occupation of Egypt.

The history of our times has witnessed violence on an unimaginable scale. George Kassimeris reflects on the age-old horrors of warfare and struggles to find reasons for what leads men to perpetrate inexplicable acts of brutality.