Medieval

Papal Finance and the Papal State

Peter Partner asserts that, from a financial point of view, the Reformation was a paradox; the final outburst against Papal exactions came at a moment when the Popes were less guilty under this charge than they had been for many centuries.

Clerks in Royal Service

J.L. Kirby examines how the 15th-century records of Thomas Hoccleve, Robert Fry and Thomas Broket illustrate the workings of modern civil service in its infancy.

Archbishop Stephen Langton

Deryck Abel reflects on a crucial figure in the dispute between King John of England and Pope Innocent III, which in turn led to the issuing of Magna Carta in 1215.

Court Life at Ferrara

F.M. Godfrey describes how, during the fifteenth century, the courtly civilization of Ferrara gave birth to splendid works of art.

Attila the Hun

Michael Grant tells how, some 1000 years ago, the “Scourge of God” died on his wedding night.

Salzburg

Imbued, with the militant spirit of the Counter Reformation, a sixteenth-century Prince Bishop, Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau, set out to re-build Salzburg as a Second Rome, as Tudor Edwards here describes.

A Fifteenth-Century Merchant family

A solid middle-class clan who exported English wool to foreign markets, the Celys have left behind them a graphic record of their private affairs and shrewd commercial dealings, as Alison Hanham here finds.